Background
Recently, single-person households have increased in Korea and this trend may have potential public health implications and affect various health behaviors. This study investigated the associations between living alone and health behaviors such as smoking and alcohol consumption among Korean adults.
Methods
We used data from the 6th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 2013 and 2015 and a total of 17,088 adults were included. We performed a multivariable logistic regression analysis and calculated odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
Results
Single-person households accounted for about 10% of the total participants. The proportions of currently smoking and heavy alcohol consumption were higher among individuals living alone than those living together among younger women and middle-aged and elderly men and women. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, living alone was associated with increased odds of currently smoking compared to living together among middle-aged men and women (OR, 7.37; 95% CI, 2.33–23.32 in men and OR, 2.36; 95% CI, 1.04–5.36 in women) after adjusting for confounding variables.
Conclusion
From this nationwide, population-based study, we found that living alone is associated with increased odds of currently smoking, especially in middle-aged people. Public health concerns may be warranted for middle-aged single-person households to reduce health risks related to smoking.

Citations

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Background
: Serum Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) has been used clinically as a marker for excessive alcohol consumption or liver diseases, but it was reported recently that GGT is associated with cardiovascular disease. This study was done to verify the association between GGT and the metabolic syndrome in Korean male workers.

Methods : Total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting glucose, uric acid, and GGT were measured and liver US was performed in 1,215 male workers who underwent annual health check up in a university health promotion center from May to October 2003. The association of GGT with the metabolic syndrome was assessed.

Results : The mean age of subjects was 41.9±7.2 years and the mean BMI was 24.1±2.7 kg/m². A raised GGT level (GGT＞75 IU/L) was seen in 172 of 1,136 (15.1%) and the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome was 9.9% (112/1,136). Individuals with the metabolic syndrome had a higher mean GGT concentration (53.4 IU/L) than individuals without the metabolic syndrome (34.4 IU/L; P＜0.001). The subjects with increased GGT showed more risk of metabolic syndrome than the subjects with normal GGT by multivariate analysis (OR=2.835). Subgroup analyses did not change the association between the GGT and the metabolic syndrome.

Conclusion : This study showed that the serum GGT was associated with the metabolic syndrome and that increased GGT was another feature of the metabolic syndrome.

Background
: It has been suggested that CDT is a potential biological marker in the Western countries to reflect the degree of past alcohol consumption. This study was performed to compare CDT, AST (aspartate transaminase), ALT (alanine transaminase), and GGT (gamma-glutamyl transferase) as a biological marker reflecting drinking amounts in Korean patients.

Methods : The 25 males with moderate drinking (＜14 drinks/week) and 26 males with heavy drinking (＞21 drinks/week) were studied for the relationships between their weekly drinking amount and the blood levels of CDT, AST, ALT, and GGT.

Results : Only CDT was significantly correlated (P=0.001) with weekly drinking amount among heavy drinkers, while both CDT (P=0.029) and GGT (P=0.000) were significantly correlated in moderate drinkers. Stepwise multiple regression revealed that GGT had R² of 49.1% in moderate drinkers and CDT had R² of 38.9% in heavy drinkers for the weekly drinking amount.

Conclusion : The results described above suggested that CDT can be a potential biological marker for the purpose of quantitative monitoring the drinking behavior of heavy drinkers in Korea.

Background
: It is well known that heavy alcohol consumption may result in various lesions on multiple organs and tissue, especially liver. The aim of this study was to measure prevalence of raised liver-derived enzymes in healthy men and possible association with alcohol consumption, smoking and body mass index.

Methods : All subjects were 450 men who received Adult Health Examination at Seoul Hospital of Konkuk medical center from May, 1998 to October, 1998. We carried out telephone survey and analyzed 360 men, excluding men with HBs Ag(+), hepatic problems within 6 months, medication drug that could change serum activity of hepatic enzyme or joints, muscles, cardiac problem and non-responder to telephone survey. We examined prevalence of raise liver enzymes and its possible association with alcohol consumption, smoking, and body mass index, applying logistic regression analysis.

Results : In 20.3% of study subjects, we found raised levels of liver-derived enzymes. If the alcohol consumption was higher than 270 g/week, the odds ratio(OR) for raised liver enzymes, adjusted for body mass index and smoking, increased ; serum gamma glutamyltransferase(r GTP) (OR: 9.48), serum aspartate aminotransferase(AST) (OR: 13.09), and serum alanine aminotransferase(ALT) (OR: 7.40). Smoking was not associated with the risk of raised liver enzymes and obesity(body mass index 25 kg/㎡) showed a positive association with two enzymes ; rGTP(OR: 1.92) and ALT(OR: 2.08).

Conclusion : If alcohol consumption was higher than 270 g/week, the risk of raised liver enzymes increased dramatically and rGTP, AST were shown more sensitive than ALT in alcoholic liver disease.

Background
: Alcohol has much effect on our lives as a taste food that people in almost all of the world generally have had. The effects of alcohol cause social problems as well as physical and psychological problems. Recently, interest about drinking increasingly rises as the rate of drinking accident increases in Korea. For this, our study examined the amount of alcohol consumption and early at-risk alcohol intake.

Methods : The prepared questionnaire was presented to subjects who were employees in Inchon. The anonymous, self-administered questionnaire was composed of questionnaire concerning alcohol consumption, early at-risk alcohol intake and doctor’s role in drinking behaviour.

Results : Among 305 subjects, there were 189(62%) men, 116(38%) women whose mean age was 37 9 years. 87(28.5%) subjects were classified as high alcohol group and 218(71.5%) low alcohol group. High alcohol group was defined as early at-risk alcohol intake for men who were consuming 135g of alcohol per day, 630 per week and for women 90g per day, 270g per week. Low alcohol group was defined as early at-risk alcohol intake for men whose consumption was 90g per day, 450 per week and for women 45g per day, 270g per week. Mea alcohol consumption of drinker was 158.9g per week. 3 days per week people should not drink in order to avoid risk. Although 54% of respondents thought doctors should ask about their drinking habits, only 16.4% of respondents reported ever being asked about alcohol intake on the subject.

Conclusion : Early at-risk drinking subject in the study was much more than those suggested by NIH(National Institutes of Health). We conclude that primary care physicians should take more inter-est in screening, treating and preventing alcohol related problems and advise and educate patients to cut down or quit drinking. ( J Korean Acad Fam Med 1999;20:1732-1740)

Background
: It has been reported that hypercholesterolemia is associated with coronary heart disease and that alcohol intake influence on the lipid metabolism. This study was conducted to evaluate the relations between alcohol intake and serum lipid level.

Methods : We reviewed 906 subjects who had visited for routine checkup at family practice of Hanil hospital and then excluded 130 subjects with DM, renal disease, thyroid disease, hepatic disease or drug administration which might have influence on serum lipids. From the remaining 776 subjects, we obtained the amount and the frequency of alcohol drinking during the previous 2 weeks and the duration of alcohol intake, using a formed questionnaire. The alcohol dependence score was recorded by the National Alcoholism Screening Test. The serum lipids such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, and HDL-cholesterol were tested by enzyme method and obesity index was obtained by Broca’s methods. These data were analyzed by SAS/TC program.

Results : The total number of subjects was 776. Of those, 67.7% (n=525) were male and 32.3%(n=25) females. The mean age of subjects was 50.5 years (range 15 to 77 years). The distribution according to the obesity index was as follows; underweight group 7.1%, normal-weight group 38.1%, over-weight group 31.6%, obesity group 23.2%. The number of the drinkers was 382(49.2%) in males and 7(0.9%) in females.
The mean serum lipid level were compared and analyzed among the groups. The results were as follows; the total cholesterol and triglyceride levels were higher in males and the HDL-cholesterol levels was higher in females. The total cholesterol and triglyceride levels increased with age and obesity index, the HDL-cholesterol level decreased with obesity index. In the relationship between alcohol intake and serum lipid levels in males, The geometric mean of triglyceride level was higher among all the variables of alcohol intake, and the HDL-cholesterol level increased with the amount and the frequency of alcohol intake.
The results of multiple regression analysis associated with age, obesity, index, the amount and the frequency of alcohol intake in males were as follows; the triglyceride level was positively associated with the amount of alcohol intake, and the HDL-cholesterol level was positively associated with the frequency of alcohol intake.

Conclusion : The effects of age, sex and the obesity index on the serum lipid level are remarkable, and in males, alcohol intake increases triglyceride and HDL-cholesterol levels. Further study is needed to find out about whether alcohol intake have influences on coronary heart disease according to serum lipid levels.