Background
The use of e-cigarettes is increasing globally, particularly among young adults. Although several use them to quit smoking, their effects are controversial. The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) was used to assess nicotine dependence in the smoking cessation process. This study examined changes in FTND scores among young adults using different types of cigarettes over a 1-year period.
Methods
Prospective cohort data were collected from cigarette users at higher education institutions in the lower northern region of Thailand to analyze changes in FTND scores over a 1-year period. E-cigarette users and combined users were compared with conventional cigarette users. A marginal structural model (MSM) with an inverse probability of weighting (IPW) was used to adjust for time-dependent and time-independent confounders.
Results
Of the 133 participants, 58 were e-cigarette users (43.6%), 33 were combined cigarette users (24.8%), and 42 were conventional cigarette users (31.6%). The results revealed that when both time-dependent and time-independent confounders were adjusted using MSM with IPW, e-cigarette users had a 0.20 decrease in the mean FTND score, and combined users had a 0.47 decrease in the mean FTND score compared to conventional cigarette users. However, the difference was not statistically significant.
Conclusion
The use of e-cigarettes or combined cigarettes did not significantly affect nicotine dependence levels in young adults over a 1-year period. Consequently, e-cigarettes should not be recommended to reduce nicotine dependence among young adult cigarette users. Further studies are required to determine whether e-cigarettes affect smoking cessation rates.

Although major countries, such as South Korea, have developed and disseminated national smoking cessation guidelines, these efforts have been limited to developing individual societies or specialized institution-based recommendations. Therefore, evidence-based clinical guidelines are essential for developing smoking cessation interventions and promoting effective smoking cessation treatments. This guideline targets frontline clinical practitioners involved in a smoking cessation treatment support program implemented in 2015 with the support of the National Health Insurance Service. The Guideline Development Group of 10 multidisciplinary smoking cessation experts employed the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE)-ADOLOPMENT approach to review recent domestic and international research and guidelines and to determine evidence levels using the GRADE methodology. The guideline panel formulated six strong recommendations and one conditional recommendation regarding pharmacotherapy choices among general and special populations (mental disorders and chronic obstructive lung disease [COPD]). Strong recommendations favor varenicline rather than a nicotine patch or bupropion, using varenicline even if they are not ready to quit, using extended pharmacotherapy (>12 weeks) rather than standard treatment (8–12 weeks), or using pharmacotherapy for individuals with mental disorders or COPD. The conditional recommendation suggests combining varenicline with a nicotine patch instead of using varenicline alone. Aligned with the Korean Society of Medicine’s clinical guideline development process, this is South Korea’s first domestic smoking cessation treatment guideline that follows standardized guidelines. Primarily focusing on pharmacotherapy, it can serve as a foundation for comprehensive future smoking cessation clinical guidelines, encompassing broader treatment topics beyond medications.

Background
Many people use both combustible cigarette (CC) and electronic cigarette (EC). We compared nicotine dependence among CC, EC, and dual users using questionnaires and urinary cotinine levels.
Methods
Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2014–2017) databases were analyzed; 3,917 CC, EC, and dual users were administered the urinary cotinine test, and 1,045 current CC and dual users completed the Heaviness of Smoking Index (HSI) questionnaires. Weighted geometric means of urine cotinine levels were compared between exclusive CC, exclusive EC, and dual users. The distribution rate, based on time to first cigarette (TTFC), cigarettes per day (CPD), and the HSI was analyzed in two weighted groups, exclusive CC and dual users.
Results
Among those who currently use any type of cigarette, 89.4%, 1.4%, and 9.2% were exclusive CC, exclusive EC, and dual users, respectively. Weighted geometric means of urine cotinine were highest in dual users (1,356.4 ng/mL), followed by exclusive CC (1,270.3 ng/mL), and exclusive EC (867.7 ng/mL) with significant differences between all three groups (P<0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in CPD between exclusive CC and dual users (P=0.626). The proportion of TTFC ≤5 minutes was 21.5% and 29.5% in the two groups, respectively (P=0.010); however, HSI differences in the two groups was marginal (P=0.557).
Conclusion
In this study, the urinary cotinine value could distinguish the three groups, CC, EC, and dual users, but the questionnaire using HSI could not distinguish the three groups.

Citations

• Protocol for the development of a vaping cessation intervention for young adult veterans
  Neal Doran, Samantha Hurst, Jie Liu, Omar El-Shahawy, Mark Myers, Paul Krebs
  Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications.2024; 39: 101309.     CrossRef
• Smoking Cessation Treatment in Primary Care
  Hye-ji An, Cheol-Min Lee, Yoo-Bin Seo, Eon-Sook Lee, Yu-Jin Paek
  Korean Journal of Family Practice.2024; 14(4): 184.     CrossRef
• Optimum Urine Cotinine and NNAL Levels to Distinguish Smokers from Non-Smokers by the Changes in Tobacco Control Policy in Korea from 2008 to 2018
  Eun Young Park, Min Kyung Lim, Eunjung Park, Yoonjung Kim, Dohoon Lee, Kyungwon Oh
  Nicotine & Tobacco Research.2022; 24(11): 1821.     CrossRef
• Current status of tobacco use, cessation and control policy in Korea
  Cheol Min Lee
  Journal of the Korean Medical Association.2022; 65(12): 789.     CrossRef
• Current status of health promotion in Korea
  Soo Young Kim
  Journal of the Korean Medical Association.2022; 65(12): 776.     CrossRef
• Recent Trends of Research and Guidelines on Pharmacotherapy for Smoking Cessation
  Choon-Young Kim
  Journal of the Korean Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.2022; 13(4): 107.     CrossRef
• Nicotine Dependence of Electronic Cigarette, Dual Combustible and Electronic Cigarette Users
  Jungun Lee
  Korean Journal of Family Medicine.2021; 42(3): 189.     CrossRef
• Recent Updates of Pharmacotherapy for Smoking Cessation
  Ju Sam Hwang, Cheol Min Lee
  Korean Journal of Family Practice.2021; 11(6): 403.     CrossRef

Disulfiram has been used for the treatment of alcohol dependence for nearly 65 years and is approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It causes negative reinforcement by accumulating toxic acetaldehyde due to irreversible inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase. Disulfiram has very few side effects when taken without alcohol. Epileptic seizure induction is a rare side effect in therapeutic doses, and its mechanism is unknown. We present a patient with a single epileptic seizure which was thought to be due to disulfiram used in the treatment of alcohol dependence. We did not find it ethical to administer disulfiram again because the patient discontinued alcohol use and was afraid of epileptic seizures.

Citations

• Disulfiram-Associated Generalized Tonic–Clonic Seizures
  Sivapriya Vaidyanathan, Sudharshan Raghunathan, Suma T. Udupa, Ravindra Neelakanthappa Munoli, Malkonahalli Srikanta Manjushree, Samir Kumar Praharaj
  American Journal of Therapeutics.2024; 31(4): e422.     CrossRef
• Anticancer Effects of New Disulfiram Analogs
  Omeima Abdullah, Christopher A. Beaudoin, Ziad Omran
  Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin.2024; 47(11): 1804.     CrossRef
• Disulfiram-induced epileptic seizures
  Violeta Nogueira, Mafalda Azevedo Mendes, Inês Pereira, Joana Teixeira
  BMJ Case Reports.2021; 14(3): e236296.     CrossRef

Citations

• Alcohol and Nicotine Dependence and Time to Death in a General Adult Population: A Mortality Cohort Study
  Ulrich John, Hans-Jürgen Rumpf, Monika Hanke, Christian Meyer
  European Addiction Research.2023; 29(6): 394.     CrossRef
• Association of demographic variables and smoking habits with the severity of lung function in adult smokers
  Arash Toghyani, Somayeh Sadeghi
  Journal of Research in Medical Sciences.2022; 27(1): 18.     CrossRef
• Association between Time to First Cigarette and Health-Related Quality of Life of Middle-Aged Male Current Smokers: A Nationwide Representative Study in Korea
  Sung Eun Jo, Hye Rim Hwang, Yun Jin Kim, Sang Yeoup Lee, Jeong Gyu Lee, Yu Hyeon Yi, Young Hye Cho, Young Jin Tak, Seung Hun Lee, Eun Ju Park, Youngin Lee
  Korean Journal of Family Medicine.2021; 42(3): 225.     CrossRef
• Time to First Cigarette and Self-Reported Health Among US Adult Smokers
  Baksun Sung
  Tobacco Use Insights.2019;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Effects of smoking on the lower respiratory tract microbiome in mice
  Rui Zhang, Ling Chen, Lei Cao, Kang-jie Li, Yao Huang, Xiao-qian Luan, Ge Li
  RESPIRATORY RESEARCH.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef

Background
Smoking is universally recognized as the foremost preventable cause of cancer. And smoking behavior causes many negative effects in cancer patients. Based on the mounting evidence that smoking affects cancer treatment outcomes and survival, we studied whether the cancer diagnosis affects smoking behavior. Methods: During August 2007, 279 patients who were hospitalized with the diagnosis of cancer were surveyed by a questionnaire and a follow up survey was performed at 3 months and 7 months afterwards. Follow up survey was performed via telephone and finally 246 patients were enrolled. Questions in the survey included smoking history, nicotine dependence, stage of change and the reason for quit smoking or keep smoking. In the follow up survey at 7 month, we asked whether they needed smoking cessation interventions. Results: At the end of the study, the subjects who kept smoking were 27 patients, but the degree of nicotine dependence was decreased compared to the preceding 2 surveys and contemplation as well as preparation stage turned out to be the most prevalent stage of change. The main reasons to keep smoking were behavioral habits and stress. Regardless of their smoking history, almost all cancer patients wanted smoking cessation interventions. Conclusion: Smoking is a critical variable that affects cancer treatment and outcome. We surely found there is a smoking subgroup after cancer diagnosis and we should advise them to quit smoking.

Citations

• Sarcopenia in cancer survivors is associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk
  Su Jung Lee, Yoon Jin Park, Kathleen B. Cartmell
  Supportive Care in Cancer.2018; 26(7): 2313.     CrossRef
• Suicide in patients with genitourinary malignancies
  M. M. de Lima, M. Tobias-Machado
  European Journal of Cancer Care.2017; 26(6): e12635.     CrossRef
• Depression and Suicide Ideas of Cancer Patients and Influencing Factors in South Korea
  Su Jin Lee, Jong Hyock Park, Bo Young Park, So Young Kim, Il Hak Lee, Jong Heun Kim, Dai Ha Koh, Chang-Hoon Kim, Jae Hyun Park, Myong Sei Sohn
  Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention.2014; 15(7): 2945.     CrossRef

Background
It is important to evaluate the functional ability of the elderly for optimal care. This study was conducted to identify factors associated with dependence for activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) in elderly adults in Korea.Methods: A cross-sectional study of data from the third Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES III) 2005 was undertaken. The sample consisted of 3,656 participants, 65 years of age or older. Multifactorial regression analysis was used to identify associations between ADL and IADL dependence and sociodemographics, lifestyle, and health history.Results: Among the 629 (17.2%) ADL-dependent and signifi cantly and independently associated factors were age, lower education level, health assistance or no-insurance, stroke, urinary incontinence, diabetes, arthritis, and lung cancer. Among the 1,674 (55.7%) IADL-dependent and significantly and independently associated factors were age, lower education level, single or widowed, male, stroke, arthritis, glaucoma and/or cataract. Conclusion: Functional dependence in older adults was directly related to aging and had multiple determinants. Awareness of these determinants should help design health programs that can identify individuals who are at high risk of losing their independence, and implement interventions for slowing or reversing the process.

Citations

• Exploring the Determinants of Frailty in Older Adults by Age Group Using Decision Tree Analysis
  Yeong-Ju Lee, Kon Hee Kim
  Journal of Korean Public Health Nursing.2025; 39(1): 95.     CrossRef
• Limitations and determinants of Activities of Daily Living among older adults in Assam: LASI (Wave-1) analysis
  Mantu Paul, Binod Chandra Sarma
  Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health.2024; 28: 101632.     CrossRef
• Mental Health and Handgrip Strength Among Older Adults: A Nationwide Study
  Yeunhee Kwak, Yoonjung Kim
  INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Effect of a Physical Activity Promoting Program Based on the IMB Model on Obese-Metabolic Health Outcomes among Obese Older Adults with Knee Osteoarthritis
  Jung-Suk Kim, Chun-Ja Kim
  Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing.2020; 50(2): 271.     CrossRef
• How Can We Evaluate Disability without Bias?
  Sunyoung Kim, Chang Won Won
  Annals of Geriatric Medicine and Research.2020; 24(2): 152.     CrossRef
• Factors influencing attitudes toward advance directives in Korean older adults
  Ji Eun Lee, Dong Wook Shin, Ki Young Son, Hyun Jung Park, Jae-Young Lim, Mi Soon Song, Yeon-Hwan Park, BeLong Cho
  Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics.2018; 74: 155.     CrossRef
• Management of Elderly Diabetes Patients Who Are Unable to Self-Care
  Bok Rye Song
  The Journal of Korean Diabetes.2018; 19(4): 232.     CrossRef
• Relationship between chewing ability and cognitive impairment in the rural elderly
  Eun-Kyong Kim, Sung Kook Lee, Youn-Hee Choi, Makiko Tanaka, Kimiko Hirotsu, Hyeon Chang Kim, Hee-Kyung Lee, Yun-Sook Jung, Atsuo Amano
  Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics.2017; 70: 209.     CrossRef
• Effects of Health Status and Health Management on Activities of Daily Living among Urban-Dwelling Older Koreans
  Myung Sill Chung, Kyung-Choon Lim, Yeon Ha Kim
  The Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education.2016; 22(1): 72.     CrossRef
• The Association between Family Support, Activities of Daily Living and Depression among Hospitalized Older Patients with Chronic Diseases
  Jeong Yi Kim, So Yeon Ryu, Mi Ah Han, Seong Woo Choi
  Journal of agricultural medicine and community health.2016; 41(1): 13.     CrossRef
• A 9-year Trend in the Prevalence of Allergic Disease Based on National Health Insurance Data
  Byoungin Yoo, Yoonhyung Park, Kwanjun Park, Hoseob Kim
  Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health.2015; 48(6): 301.     CrossRef
• Impact of Glaucoma on Quality of Life and Activities of Daily Living
  Sangshin Park, Young Lim Kho, Hyo-Jin Kim, JiHyun Kim, Eun-Hee Lee
  Hong Kong Journal of Occupational Therapy.2015; 25(1): 39.     CrossRef
• Age-Related Physical Function(ADL, IADL) and its Related Factors of Elderly People in Korea
  Young-Su Song, Nam-Kyou Bae, Young-Chae Cho
  Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society.2015; 16(3): 2002.     CrossRef
• The effects of physical and psychological health on life satisfaction among older adults with a physical disability in South Korea: focus on gender differences
  Sangeun Cho
  Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development.2015; 25(3): 133.     CrossRef
• Gender Difference in Factors Related to Depression in Vulnerable Elderly
  Eun-Kyung Kim
  The Korean Journal of Health Service Management.2014; 8(3): 169.     CrossRef
• An Evaluation of the Dietary Status for Developing Assistance Programs for Daily Lives of Elderly Individuals in Rural Korea
  Jin-Sook Yoon, Min-Kyoung Song, Hye-Jin Lee, Shin-Young Lee, Hee-Keum Cho, Yoon-Ji Choi
  The Korean Journal of Community Living Science.2014; 25(2): 163.     CrossRef
• Factors associated with Health-related Quality of Life in Vulnerable Elderly Women
  Gyeyoung Shin, Eun Kyung Kim
  Journal of Korean Public Health Nursing.2014; 28(3): 419.     CrossRef
• Factors Associated with Depressive Symptom in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Based on the Third (2005) and Fourth (2008) Korea National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (KNHANES III, IV)
  Sung-Hoon Kim, Jun-Su Kim, Jae-Young Choi, Ka-Young Lee, Tae-Jin Park, Jae-Hwa Lee
  Korean Journal of Family Medicine.2011; 32(4): 234.     CrossRef

Background
Recently, a variety of cigarettes which contain a low content of nicotine are on the market and the nicotine tends to be reduced continuously. However, studies have not yet fully demonstrated that low-nicotine cigarettes are subservient to quitting smoking. This study was designed to investigate the effects of the nicotine content on smoking attitudes and on the factors associated with successful smoking cessation. Methods: One hundred twenty-fi ve adult smokers, who had undergone a health examination in a general hospital, had their carbon monoxide measured after responding to the questionnaire. The items of questionnaire consisted of the duration of smoking, the age of starting to smoke, the number of attempts to stop smoking, recognition of nicotine dependence, and nicotine dependence score. Results: The subjects consisted of two groups. One group was low nicotine group and the nicotine content was lower than 0.35 mg per cigarette. The other group was high nicotine group and the nicotine content was over 0.35 mg per cigarette. he age was younger and duration of smoking was shorter in low nicotine group. Monthly income, last schooling and number of attempts to stop smoking were higher in low nicotine group. There was no statistical signifi cant differences between the two groups in the frequency of alcohol drinking, the age of starting to smoke, marital status, nicotine dependence, carbon monoxide concentration and recognition of nicotine dependence. Conclusion: As there was no differences in smoking habits which has infl uence on achieving quit smoking of low nicotine group, we made our conclusion that low nicotine cigarette might be unhelpful in quit smoking.

Background
The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) is a widely used six-item questionnaire. Its completion require a few minutes, but such time may be too much for busy clinicians and large epidemiologic surveys. The goals of this study was to compare the sensitivity and the specificity of Heavy Smoking Index (HSI) of high nicotine dependence. Methods: The FTND was administered to 943 current smokers from a smoking-cessation clinic in Gwangjin-gu, Seoul. The HSI which combines two items of the FTND (the number of cigarettes per day and the time of the first cigarette of the day) was compared to the FTND. We measured cigarette per day, duration of smoking, and age of smoking initiation. Results: A cutoff score equal or greater than 4 on the HSI detected a similar rate of nicotine dependence as a cutoff score equal or greater than 6 on the FTND. The HSI showed a sensitivity of 88.0% and a specificity of 86.5%. The concordance between the two instruments was high (kappa= 0.74). Conclusion: The HSI was proven to be very useful. If HSI had a proper validity, the HSI can be a good standard of high nicotine dependence for busy clinician and epidemiologists. (J Korean Acad Fam Med 2008;29:405-411)

Background
This study investigated the relationship between stress and nicotine dependence, dividing stress into external stress and internal response. Methods: The subjects were 263 male adults who had visited the General Health Promotion Center at Chungnam National University Hospital in Korea between April and June 2005. Nicotine dependence, external stress and internal response were measured by the Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence, life change unit of the social readjustment rating scale and the brief encounter psychosocial instrument. Results: The mean (±SD) score of external stress in smokers (n=107) was 150.79 (±109.02), which was significantly (P<0.001) higher than 92.96 (±126.27) in non- smokers, and the mean (±SD) score of internal response in smokers was 10.30 (±3.16), which was also significantly (P<0.001) higher than 8.71 (±3.33) in non- smokers. The smokers' nicotine dependence showed positive correlation with the score of external stress (r=0.436, P<0.001) and the score of internal response (r=0.579, P<0.001). The stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that nicotine dependence was related to the score of internal response, the score of external stress, the duration of education, the age of first smoking (overall R²=0.433, P=0.040), and most closely to the score of internal response (partial R²=0.335, P<0.001). Conclusion: In order to develop an effective strategy for quitting smoking, the internal response to stress needs to be considered as one of evaluation items. (J Korean Acad Fam Med 2007;28:604-609)

Background
: Although caffeine is commonly consumed substance and not seriously harmful as compared to alcohol and nicotine, Korea is planning to mark on the products which contain caffeine above a definite level with "containing large amounts caffeine". At this point in time, the study concerning caffeine related symptoms is in need.

Methods : After surveying university students by using self-administered questionnaires based on DSM-IV substance related disorder, healthy 810 subjects were assessed for socio-demographic characteristics and features of caffeine intake and its dependence, withdrawal, and intoxication.

Results : The mean amount of caffeine consumption in 810 subjects was 120.49 mg (median=93.0) per day. The major features of caffeine dependence were as follows: tolerance (61.1%), withdrawal (46.3%), using more or longer than intended (46.0%), and unsuccessful attempt to cut down or control use (12.6%). The prevalence was increased by daily caffeine consumption. Among 711 subjects who had experienced no caffeine consumption over 24 hours {amount of daily caffeine consumption was 116.0 mg (median=86.5)}, 6.19% showed significant distress in usual activity, and 22.1% used caffeine contents to avoid withdrawal symptoms. The prevalence of caffeine withdrawal based on DSM-IV research criteria was 2.67% and the frequency for symptoms were as follows: fatigue (37.7%), drowsiness (17.6%), headache (14.5%), an anxiety (8.3%). In addition, the prevalence of caffeine intoxication was 2.1% and the frequency for symptoms were as follows: insomnia (41.9%), diuresis (35.8%), tachycardia (26.7%), and gastrointestinal disturbance (23.3%).

Conclusion : The unwanted symptoms related to caffeine withdrawal or intoxication were common in students using caffeine. Therefore, major features of caffeine-related symptoms should be considered in primary care practice.

Background
: Although the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire (FTQ) and the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), which are the tools to measure Nicotine Dependence, have a high internal reliability and a high test-retest reliability, they have not been tested domestically. A Korean-Version Questionnaire for Nicotine Dependence was assessed to find out the internal reliability, test-retest reliability and validity.

Methods : The research subjects were adult smokers of ages between 19 and 77 among hospital visitors, hospital staffs, inpatients and outpatients. The smokers had their carbon monoxide measured after responding to the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of Nicotine Dependence (FTQ & FTND), the history of smoking, the variables related to Nicotine Dependence, and factors that influence carbon monoxide(CO) measurement. Micro II smokerlyzer (Bedfont Instruments Ltd, England) was used to analyze CO concentration in expired air. The method used for measuring CO concentration was to deeply inhale and hold one's breath for 15 seconds and measure CO concentration while exhaling.

Results : The total number of subjects was 205 (199 males, 6 females) consisting of 124 hospital visitors, 67 hospital staff, 8 inpatients, and 6 inpatients. The average FTQ was 4.68 and the average FTND was 3.95. Cronbach's alpha, which indicates the internal reliability, was 0.6679 for FTQ and 0.6913 for FTND. The correlation coefficient which indicates test-retest reliability was 0.783 for FTQ and 0.880 for FTND. The correlation coefficient which indicates the relationship between the level of Nicotine Dependence and expired air CO concentration was 0.484 for FTQ and 0.563 for FTND. The correlation coefficient of the smoking period was 0.247 for FTQ and 0.252 for FTND.

Conclusion : This Korean-Version Questionnaires for Nicotine Dependence (FTQ & FTND) were both satisfactory from the aspects of reliability and validity. It was concluded that the Korean-Version of FTND was a reliable method to reflect the level of nicotine dependence of smokers from the fact that the reliability and validity of FTND was higher than that of FTQ.

Background
: This study was intended to present the importance of insight status concerning the abstinence of alcoholics.

Methods : The 214 subjects, who participated in insight-improving programs during hospitalization in an alcohol treatment center, were followed up for their abstinent status during the 12month period after discharge, The relation between their abstinence results and insight status was investigated. To find out the influence of other factors upon abstinence. stepwise multiple regression was performed over variables including disease severity, sociodemographic, therapeutic and familial features.

Results : The 73 individuals (34.1%) had 'no remission', 110 (51.4%) 'early full remission', and 31 (14.5%) 'sustained full remission'. The insight degree was significantly correlated with both 'initial consecutive months of sobriety'(IMS) after discharge and 'total months of sobriety'(TMS) during the follow-up. The 153 subjects (71.5%) relapsed within four months after discharge, and the rage of continuous abstinence at each month differed significantly among three insight groups. On the inter-group shifts during hospitalization, the abstinent months were greater in the group whose insight changed from 'poor-' to 'good-insight' than the one from 'fair-' to 'good-insight'. By stepwise multiple regression analysis, the higher insight scores, older age and shorter hospital days, in a decreasing order of association, the longer IMS and TMS, while absence of religion and lower MAST scores was associated only with IMS, with their overall R2 value of 18.5% and 20.8%, respectively.

Conclusion : The insight degree was related to the length of abstinence and thus it is necessary to develop insight-improving programs which can be of help to recovering patients.

Background
: Smoking is the single most important factor of the prevention of diseases and the promotion of health. The objectives of this study are to compare the health-related quality of life and other factors between the adult male smokers and nonsmokers.

Methods : Study subjects were selected from the parents of students of three schools; one elementary school, one middle school, and one high school in Suwon city , Kyungki- Do. Among 2.308 respondents to the questionnaire, 1.127 were analyzed.
The questionnaire consisted of questions of general socioeconomic status, health-related quality of life questionnaire, Fagerstrom nicotine tolerance questionnaire, and the Why test.

Results : There were no significant socioeconomic differences between the smokers and nonsmokers except religion(p=0.000). The smoking rage of the subjects was 66.2%, the average amount smokers ranked lower scores in all scales of the health-related quality of life than nonsmoker. The health-related quality of life of the group of high nicotine dependence was low in comparison with the group of low nicotine dependence. The most common reason of smoking was to relieve tension.

Conclusion : Smokers ranked lower scores in all scales of the health-related quality of life than nonsmoker.