The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic necessitated quarantine and isolation measures to prevent disease spread. These measures significantly impacted global populations [1,2] and posed challenges for individuals and their families, including financial insecurities, limited access to healthcare, and social isolation [3]. Domestic violence also increased during the pandemic as women faced restricted options for seeking help. This had detrimental outcomes for families, with higher rates of conflict, mental instability, and physical harm [4,5]. Amid the overwhelming focus on the COVID-19 crisis, there was a distressing lack of understanding and preparedness among authorities to address domestic violence incidents [6,7]. Tragically, real-life accounts reveal harrowing consequences. In Uttam Nagar, Delhi, a 28-year-old mother-of-two endured physical abuse from her husband and his family [8]. Despite her complaints to the police, the response was inadequate. They advised her to stay home during the lockdown. However, once her husband discovered the complaint, the situation escalated. Shockingly, reports from various parts of India indicate that women were murdered by their husbands during the lockdown, reflecting the dire consequences of domestic violence [8,9]. Regrettably, the insensitivity of the authorities during the pandemic resulted in the loss of life, leaving children without their mothers.

Authorities should implement comprehensive strategies to ensure women’s safety and well-being, including strengthening support services, raising awareness, and integrating gender-responsive approaches. Lifetime prevalence estimates of domestic violence vary across regions, emphasizing the need for preventive measures and access to comprehensive healthcare services for survivors [10]. This research contributes to understanding the prevalence and impact of global domestic violence, the barriers to seeking help, and best practices. We aim to inform policymakers and inspire initiatives prioritizing women’s well-being and societal progress.

We comprehensively searched academic databases and sources, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations, national and global health databases, qualitative studies, and web-based news reports. We gathered relevant literature and data on domestic violence from 2018–2022 using the term “global domestic violence” to identify evidence-based literature. Additionally, we employed terms such as “COVID-19,” “prevalence,” “barrier,” “impact,” and “measures” to acquire relevant literature on the overview of domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. The investigator and coauthors reviewed each abstract and web document to include the most pertinent data in the review. We excluded non-English papers and selected 70 articles for analysis. These articles were then categorized and discussed narratively, focusing on various subthemes and headings.

Before the emergence of COVID-19, women faced a severe but largely overlooked epidemic—domestic violence [11]. However, it has increasingly been recognized as a significant public health issue recently. This epidemic transcends age, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, and ethnicity and affects individuals from diverse backgrounds [12,13]. Women bear a significant burden of morbidity and mortality associated with domestic violence [14]. This form of gender-based violence has a pervasive impact on women worldwide.

Domestic violence, also known as intimate partner violence, is characterized by a pattern of behavior within a relationship that seeks to establish and maintain power and control over an intimate partner [15,16]. The “Power & Control Wheel” provides a framework for understanding the overall pattern of abusive and violent behaviors employed by abusers to control their partner or other victims within the household [17]. This violence is often accompanied by other forms of abuse that may be less obvious but contribute to a sustained pattern of intimidation and control [14,18].

Domestic violence encompasses various forms, including stalking, economic, emotional, psychological, sexual, neglect, and physical violence [19]. Emotional abuse involves constant criticism, insults, namecalling, undermining survivors’ relationships with their children, and isolating them from friends and family. Psychological abuse includes intimidation; threats of physical harm to themselves, the partner, or children; destruction of property or pets; manipulation; and enforced isolation. Financial or economic abuse involves controlling financial resources, denying access to money, and prohibiting education or employment [12,20,21]. Physical abuse entails physically harming a partner through hitting, kicking, burning, grabbing, slapping, hair pulling, biting, denying medical care, and coercing substance abuse. Stalking is repetitive harassment, unwanted communication, and monitoring of a victim’s activities. Sexual abuse refers to non-consensual sexual acts imposed on a partner [14,22]. Risk factors associated with domestic violence include depression, increased close contact with the partner during the pandemic, job loss, financial difficulties, lockdown measures, substance addiction, financial control, the use of technology, and quarantine [23-25].

The prevalence of domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic has become a global concern [26]. According to the WHO, approximately one in four young women aged 15–24, who were in a relationship, experienced partner violence by their mid-20s [18]. Unlike COVID-19, domestic violence cannot be eradicated through vaccination. We must address harmful attitudes, enhance opportunities and resources for women and girls, and promote healthy and respectful relationships.

Lockdown measures were implemented during the initial stages of the pandemic to improve the overall welfare of the population [24]. While some individuals reported positive outcomes, such as increased family bonding and shared responsibilities [27], it is crucial to acknowledge the adverse effects of strict lockdown orders, particularly on vulnerable groups such as women. Reports from various countries indicate an increase in domestic violence cases owing to the lockdown measures [28]. During the COVID-19 social distancing period in March 2020, domestic incidents and intentional injuries among Korean women in family and adolescent settings surged significantly, surpassing the rates seen in the previous 5 years [29,30]. According to reports, the number of arrests related to domestic violence in Korea decreased by 10.8% in 2020 compared to the previous year. The pandemic lockdown made it challenging for survivors to report their abuse because they were confined with their abusers at home [31]. China experienced a threefold increase in domestic violence cases following the imposition of the lockdown, and several states in the United States recorded a 21%–35% surge in domestic violence incidents [32]. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia faced significant challenges regarding domestic violence. Statistics revealed that one in six Australian women (equivalent to 1.5 million) experienced physical and/or sexual abuse before 15. Disturbingly, between 2012–2014, one woman was tragically killed weekly due to violence from a current or former partner. Between 2014–2015, nearly eight women, on average, were admitted to hospitals daily because of partner assault [33].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, an online survey in May 2020 in Australia revealed the prevalence of domestic violence. The findings indicated that 4.6% of women had experienced physical or sexual violence within the preceding 3 months [34,35]. Additionally, 5.8% of women reported experiencing coercive control, and 11.6% had encountered emotionally abusive, harassing, or controlling behaviors from a current or former cohabiting partner [11]. These figures highlight the continued presence and impact of domestic violence during the pandemic. In March 2019, England and Wales witnessed a 24% increase in domestic violence-related crimes, totaling 1.316 million cases, including 746,219 domestic abuse-related crimes. Globally, over a third of women experience physical and/or sexual assault, either by a spouse or nonpartner, at some point in their lives [36].

Up to 70% of women in the United Kingdom have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse by an intimate partner during their lifetime. The Office of National Statistics reported a 12% increase in domestic violence incidents, called “victim assistance”, in May 2020 [24,36]. Calls received by the National Domestic Abuse Helpline from April to June of the following year saw a significant 65% increase compared to the first 3 months of the same year. Disturbingly, there were 16 cases of domestic violence-related killings of women and children within the initial 3 weeks of the lockdown [24]. In Canada, the rate of domestic violence in 2019 was over 4 times higher among women than men, with rates of 536 incidents per 100,000 people for women and 149 incidents for men. It is estimated that over 6.2 million women aged 15 and older experienced domestic violence in 2018, with psychological abuse being the most prevalent form, followed by physical and sexual abuse [37,38]. A survey conducted by Statistics Canada in April 2020 revealed that one in 10 Canadian women expressed significant concerns about domestic violence. Additionally, a study by the Native Women’s Association of Canada in May found that one in five indigenous women had experienced domestic abuse since the start of the pandemic [39].

During the first 2 weeks of April 2020, Spain witnessed a notable increase in calls received by the domestic violence helpline, with a 47% increase compared to the same period in 2019 [40]. Additionally, there was a significant surge of 700% in women seeking essential support services via email or social media [40]. Paradoxically, the domestic violence cases reported to the police decreased, which officials and activists attributed to strict lockdown measures that confined individuals to their homes, isolated survivors from potential sources of support, and making it more challenging to file formal complaints [41].

Research conducted in Tabriz, Iran, revealed that 35.2% of pregnant women experienced domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Emotional violence was the most prevalent form (32.8%), followed by sexual (12.4%) and physical (4.8%) [42]. In India, 1,548,548 cases of cruelty by husbands or their families were reported from 2001–2018. Among these, 35.8% occurred between 2014–2018. This crime increased by 53% from 18.5 per 100,000 women aged 15–49 in 2001 to 28.3 per 100,000 women aged 15–49 in 2018 [43]. Risk factors identified in a study conducted in Puducherry, South India, included love marriages without family support, illiteracy, and low-income households [44]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an approximately 47.2% increase in the prevalence of domestic violence in India based on articles published from March to July 2020 [9]. Certain areas of India have enforced rigid gender norms, allowing women to only leave their homes for work or school, while men have more freedom [9,45]. The inability to escape the conflict zone may have also contributed to increased physical violence against women during the pandemic.

Globally, governments took significant steps to safeguard domestic violence survivors during the COVID-19 pandemic—increased funding for shelters and safe accommodations, the expansion of helplines, and innovative approaches, such as mobile apps for reporting incidents. During the pandemic, the UK government swiftly responded to protect women from domestic violence by providing financial support for helplines and safe accommodation. They also collaborated with local pharmacies to offer information on support services. The enactment of The Domestic Violence Act 2021 further strengthened measures to safeguard survivors and address abusers’ behaviors [24]. Similarly, countries such as Canada, France, Italy, Germany, and Austria increased their funding for shelters and safe accommodation options for survivors [26,64].

Globally, countries have expanded helplines, disseminated information through various means, and guided parenting during the quarantine. Italy successfully promoted the 1522 helpline for violence and stalking, while other countries pledged to maintain helplines and communication channels during and after the COVID-19 peaks [65]. The Italian police developed the “Youpol” app, allowing survivors to report incidents to authorities without making a phone call. In the United Kingdom, the national emergency network “999” enables survivors to seek help without speaking [66]. In China, women’s centers were transformed into shelters for homeless women, while in Italy and France, domestic violence survivors were accommodated in hotels because of concerns about COVID-19. These measures aimed to provide temporary and safe spaces for survivors [27].

In Ireland, police proactively communicated with known survivors via phone and SMS (short message service), addressing their concerns about COVID-19 constraints [49]. In Ontario, Canada, specialist agencies established a text and chat line to offer discreet support for survivors [67]. Women’s and children’s protection services were recognized as essential and kept operational during the pandemic. Several countries have implemented innovative measures to make support more accessible, such as setting up pop-up centers in grocery shops and using code words in pharmacies [68]. France, Italy, and Spain adopted these approaches. Italy and the United Kingdom also developed and enhanced hidden support mechanisms [49,67]. In Queensland, Australia, domestic violence specialists adjusted their services to accommodate virtual platforms and daily phone messages, ensuring consistent engagement with survivors [69].

Based on the findings of this review, which revealed the limited involvement of the healthcare sector in addressing domestic violence, we propose a way forward that involves collaborative efforts between healthcare institutions and government bodies.

The limitation of this review is that it lacks extensive statistical analysis to examine the associations or relationships between the discussed themes associated with domestic violence. Therefore, future research should conduct a mixed-method approach to identify and explore the relationships or associations between domestic violence cases. This approach would provide more robust evidence and enhance the relevance and applicability of the findings for evidence-based decision-making by authorities.

However, this review provides a comprehensive discussion of the global prevalence of domestic violence affecting women, encompassing the pre-pandemic and COVID-19 periods. The study includes detailed subthemes—barriers, impacts, and potential solutions—and enhances the accessibility of valuable insights for researchers in this crucial area of study. By providing a comprehensive understanding of this topic, we hope this review will encourage further research on this vulnerable group, facilitating effective management and prevention strategies for domestic violence.

By prioritizing the safety and well-being of women and children, societies can strive for a future free from the devastating impacts of domestic violence. This review highlights several key findings regarding domestic violence and its impact on women and children. This underscores the positive commitment demonstrated by some countries to address the issue and implement measures to reduce its impact. Developing countries have shown the ability to allocate funding to establish safe places for women.

However, we have identified weaknesses, including the unpreparedness of many countries—including those with high-income levels—to respond effectively to domestic violence [70]. There is a lack of awareness and skills among the authorities when assisting survivors and helping them escape abusive relationships. Opportunities exist for committed non-governmental organizations to address domestic violence actively. The authorities can collaborate to increase health literacy and empower communities. There is a promising opportunity to establish centers for women’s excellence, where survivors can receive skills training and support to achieve financial independence and personal safety.

Healthcare systems, political levels, administrative bodies, and communities should collaborate on integrated approaches involving multiple ministries to tackle these issues. The relevant agencies and governments must also recognize the potential threats associated with inaction or inadequate attention. Women’s health—including their mental health, overall well-being, and sexual and reproductive health—is at stake. Moreover, domestic violence indirectly exposes children to risks, including a higher likelihood of depression, substance abuse, and self-esteem issues. The younger generations of a country can be profoundly affected by these consequences.

Addressing domestic violence requires sustained commitment, increased awareness, and comprehensive strategies involving multiple stakeholders, with the healthcare system playing a vital role. Healthcare systems can contribute to the prevention, early detection, intervention, and support of survivors by recognizing and addressing domestic violence as a public health issue. Collaborative efforts among healthcare providers, community organizations, policymakers, and other relevant stakeholders are essential to creating a comprehensive response that prioritizes the safety and well-being of individuals affected by domestic violence.