The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a profound impact on every continent. The spread of COVID-19 has resulted in increasing cases and fatalities, prompting the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on January 30, 2020 [1]. Thailand was among the first countries outside China to report infections. However, advances in medical science lead to a worldwide reduction in the number of infections by 2023. Subsequently, the WHO announced the conclusion of the PHEIC status on May 4, 2023 [2]. This announcement facilitated the easing of preventive measures against COVID-19, allowing educational institutions to resume conventional teaching practices.

The preceding COVID-19 landscape posed significant challenges to the education sector, affecting approximately 90% of both teachers and students [3]. An expansive Australian research study highlighted that students’ learning capacities diminished during the pandemic, primarily because of the shift to online teaching [4]. This sudden transition required educators to adapt swiftly by integrating technology and modifying their teaching methodologies [3]. A qualitative investigation into teachers’ experiences during the pandemic underscored primary concerns, which included adapting teaching strategies, facing various challenges, ensuring technological preparedness, and maintaining motivation [5]. Failure to adapt promptly to these changes had potential repercussions for educators’ physical and mental health.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in Thailand’s educational system for more than 2 years. Therefore, with the announcement of the end of the PHEIC, adjustments were made to the country’s educational and health policies. However, the spread of the infection continues; if teachers in a school are infected with COVID-19, they can be suspended for a short period of time. Furthermore, COVID-19 symptoms may have long-term consequences in certain individuals. A thorough systematic analysis indicated that the most common chronic symptoms are shortness of breath or dyspnea, weariness or exhaustion, and sleep disturbances or insomnia (frequencies were 36.0%, 40.0%, and 29.4%, respectively) [6]. However, teachers were unable to take an extended break as they did before the PHEIC announcement when they could either work from home or stay at home for up to 14 days [7]. Presently, the policy allows for a 5-day leave [8]. Consequently, this may be a contributing factor affecting their well-being, potentially leading to long-term physical and mental repercussions [9].

The concept of sickness presenteeism (SP) refers to situations in which employees come to work despite being unwell, even if they qualify for sick leave [10,11]. This phenomenon appears to be particularly pronounced among educators. A study comparing teachers, nurses, and private-sector workers found that teachers are more likely to experience SP-related challenges than their counterparts in other professions [12]. This is especially true for elementary school educators who are expected to consistently monitor and engage with their students. In instances of illness, unless a substitute is available, they often feel compelled to work [13]. Additionally, interactions with supervisors, colleagues, and broader school administrations can exacerbate feelings of exhaustion among teachers [14]. The pandemic further heightened psychosocial risks for educators, resulting in increased conflict with colleagues, students, or even family [15]. Moreover, the rise of cyberbullying during online teaching sessions has been linked to diminished teacher performance, potentially leading to both SP and teacher burnout [13].

In Thailand, the term “SP” has recently gained significant attention [16]. It presents both economic and health implications, manifesting in reduced work productivity, decreased quality of output, and diminished motivation. Over prolonged periods, this can escalate into stress, culminating in employee resignation. In the past, research on SP in Thailand was confined primarily to medical personnel. One study revealed an SP prevalence rate of 48.1% among this group. Consequently, this led to a 5.12-fold decline in work efficiency, and hospital office staff exhibited elevated stress and burnout levels at 3.89 and 2.66 times the norm, respectively [17]. However, limited research exists on SP prevalence in other occupational sectors within the country.

As part of Thailand’s strategic vision for 2023–2037 AD, the 13th Sustainable Development Goals agenda emphasizes enhancing the health and well-being of the Thai population. Correspondingly, the National Education Reform Plan mandates the safeguarding of educators and educational staff from all potential threats [18]. Furthermore, the Safety Master Plan of Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council of Thailand has been formulated to advocate for a secure and healthy work setting for all employees [19]. Historically, there has been scant mention of SP. In Thailand, there have been no studies on SP among teachers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report these findings. However, labor studies in Spain have indicated that domestic and foreign workers exhibit different SP [20]. This difference might be attributed to disparities in welfare, including the cost of living away from family, working far from home, and cultural variations, among other factors. This study investigated the occurrence of and factors influencing SP among Thai and foreign educators. The hypothesis is that work-related elements following the recent COVID situation impact teachers’ SP with Thai and foreign teachers experiencing distinct SP. Such insights can pave the way for the identification of risk factors and formulation of guidelines for illness prevention and health promotion. This not only benefits educators, but also extends their professional output. Well-equipped and healthy educators should be better poised to effectively instruct students who represent the nation’s future.

The current study on SP is the first research initiative addressing educators in Thailand. Historically, SP research has primarily focused on medical professionals [16,17]. Both educators and healthcare practitioners have been designated as occupational groups with heightened susceptibility to SP, as highlighted in previous literature [27]. The inherent nature of these professions necessitates unwavering dedication to their respective roles, often compelling individuals to persist despite potential health issues. Consistent presence is indispensable to ensure the uninterrupted execution of daily responsibilities. Although international academic contributions have documented SP among educators [12,14,28], disparities in educational infrastructure, welfare programs, and sociocultural environments between countries underscore the importance of specialized research paradigms. This study aimed to elucidate the prevalence and associated risk factors of SP, positing it as an antecedent to increased work-related stress, subsequent burnout, and potential resignation. An element distinguishing this study is its examination of foreign educators within Thailand, a demographic overlooked in earlier studies, thus amplifying a comprehensive understanding of SP within the Thai context.

When comparing Thai and foreign teachers, we observed many similarities in demographic characteristics. However, Thai teachers are predominantly female and generally older than foreign teachers. Many foreign teachers teaching English, especially in the Chonburi region, come from the Philippines, where English is the official language. These Filipino teachers are typically younger than their Thai counterparts. The study also highlighted that a large majority (84.0%) of Thai teachers were part of the bureaucratic system, with only 16.0% on temporary contracts. This structure leads to fewer Thai teachers changing jobs or leaving their roles, which explains why they tend to be older than foreign teachers.

In the present study, the prevalence of SP was 35.0%. Interestingly, no discernible difference existed between Thai and foreign teachers in this regard. Internationally, the incidence of SP among teachers has been documented in several studies. For instance, Dudenhöffer et al. [14] reported an SP rate of 57.1% among German teachers, while a separate study indicated a prevalence of 65.2% in Nicaragua [25]. Such statistics could potentially be attributed to the systemic operations of the teaching profession. Both aforementioned studies identified improper managerial support and oversight as key contributors to the occurrence of SP [9,14]. Notably, in this study, 66.5% of the respondents reported working during holidays. Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, 56.4% reported no change in their working hours, whereas 51.9% reported an increase in their workload. The pandemic has accelerated the adoption of technology in teaching, which, given the rapidity of the shift, may have caused discomfort for educators.

Several demographic variables influenced the SP. Teachers younger than 37 years exhibited a higher likelihood of experiencing SP. Monthly financial distress is also identified as a risk factor. Notably, the age threshold of 37 years in this study separated the Generation X and Y cohorts. The results indicate that those under 37 years (Generation Y) were more prone to SP than their older (Generation X) counterparts. This disparity may be rooted in generational behavioral and attitudinal differences. A survey by the Thailand Ministry of Public Health highlighted distinct lifestyle patterns for Generation Y, characterizing them as ambitious, highly committed to career success, tech-savvy, and frequently multitasking online [29]. Such differences in outlook and work habits between generations may result in diverging acceptance levels of institutional norms and practices, potentially causing psychological stress for younger educators.

Regarding compensation, teachers facing monthly financial constraints were 1.627 times more susceptible to SP than those without such financial challenges. This finding aligns with research from Poland, which identified financial hardships and challenges in accessing medical care during illnesses as significant predictors of SP among teachers [12]. In a local context, a survey conducted across 22 elementary schools in Thailand revealed a concerning level of indebtedness among educators. Notably, a substantial number of these teachers were in debt, with figures surpassing one million baht. Of this group, 46.2% had secured loans from teacher savings cooperatives, with a staggering 76.6% reporting their income as insufficient to meet monthly expenditures. The issue of teachers’ mounting debts has been a persistent concern for the Thai government [30]. Furthermore, this study highlights that one in every three teachers bears monthly financial responsibilities for the upbringing or care of children, grandchildren, or other relatives. As a result, 38.3% of the respondents reported facing consistent monthly financial challenges.

Work-related factors associated with SP include teachers undertaking school-related tasks during holidays and experiencing sleeplessness owing to contemplation of schoolwork. On typical working days, primary school educators are primarily tasked with teaching responsibilities that require their constant presence in the classroom to supervise students. This is particularly evident in schools located in the city of Chonburi, the central hub of the Eastern Economic Corridor. In this region, a significant proportion of parents are employed in the industrial sector. Given the work context, students often drop off at school earlier than the usual time observed in other districts, and are picked up later, aligning with the end of industrial workdays. Consequently, urban schools in these areas frequently offer supplementary evening classes to accommodate students waiting for their parents. This arrangement contributes to extended working hours for teachers, with 66.2% reportedly working more than 8 hours daily. Owing to constraints such as official paperwork and meetings during regular office hours, teachers often resort to fulfilling their responsibilities during holidays. Another concerning finding of this study was the notable percentage (42.5%) of teachers who reported sleeplessness induced by persistent thoughts about their school duties. Such mental preoccupations not only disrupt sleep, but can also lead to physical ailments. Previous research indicates that teachers who experience inadequate rest are 1.28 times more susceptible to SP (95% CI, 1.03–1.59) [28].

The results of this study are consistent with organizational behavior theory. Newstrom and Davis [31] stated that organizational behavior consists of behavior at three levels: individual, group, and organizational. In this study, SP conditions were found at the individual (age and financial status), group (coming to work on holidays), and organizational levels. Schools receive government policies that consider scheduling time off due to illness. In particular, if a teacher is infected with COVID-19, the length of stay will decrease. Even in the presence of chronic symptoms, teachers must work. If teachers take a break, they must complete a sick leave form, which is also a loss of leave. However, if all individuals are treated fairly when carrying out the same tasks, particularly at the organizational level, this can foster positive organizational behavioral interactions and mitigate work-related boredom and anxiety [32].